TL;DR: Hát xẩm is a professional folk music genre, formed around the 14th century, once called hát rong and hát dạo. The stage of xẩm artists is the street, the banyan tree, the river landing, the communal house courtyard or a corner of the village market, and Hanoi alone has the xẩm tàu điện branch sung on tram cars in the early 20th century. In 2021, the art of hát xẩm in Ninh Bình was added to the National List of Intangible Cultural Heritage.
What is hát xẩm and when did it emerge?
Hát xẩm is a professional folk music genre, a unique form of folk performance in Vietnam's traditional music treasury, which research cited in the press dates to around the 14th century[1][2]. From its emergence until about the first half of the 20th century, it was also called hát rong or hát dạo[1][2].
Two layers of meaning are often confused. In popular perception, many understand xẩm as the singing of blind people begging. In reality, according to research documents, blind people used xẩm as a means of livelihood, not that xẩm was born only for begging[1][2]. The stage of xẩm artisans was the street, banyan root, river wharf, communal house courtyard, or simply a corner of a poor village market[1][2].
In a 2011 article, Associate Professor Lê Đình Toàn, then Director of the Vietnam Institute of Musicology, observed that hát xẩm began as a form of folk musical activity but became an art form with its own characteristics, in which folk elements accumulated to become more professional, because xẩm singers used this art to earn a living[1]. Among Vietnamese traditional music forms, perhaps only hát xẩm is called a profession for earning a living[1].
What are the xẩm melodies and how are they named?
According to documents by folk researcher Trần Việt Ngữ published in 1964, hát xẩm has 8 main melodies: Xẩm chợ; Xẩm xoan (also called Chênh bong); Huê tình (riềm huê); Xẩm nhà trò (ba bậc); Nữ oán (Phồn huê); Hò bốn mùa; Hát ai; Thập ân[1].
Other studies record xẩm has around 10 melodies and more than 400 xẩm lyrics collected, in which common melodies include Xẩm Thập Ân, Xẩm Huê Tình, Xẩm Hà Liễu, Xẩm Ba Bậc, Xẩm Trống Quân, Xẩm Hò Khoan, Xẩm Phồn Huê, Xẩm Chợ, Xẩm Sai, Xẩm Ngâm Vịnh, Xẩm Tàu Điện and Hát Ai[2]. The difference in the number of melodies between the two documents reflects that statistics still depend on classification criteria and collection scope of each author.
The naming of xẩm melodies is very diverse, reflecting the ability of this form to proliferate[2]:
- By performance space: Xẩm Chợ, Xẩm Tàu điện (also called Xẩm Hà Nội), Xẩm Nhà trò.
- By purpose of the xẩm song: Xẩm Hò khoan.
- By content or name of famous xẩm songs: Xẩm Thập Ân.
- By origin: Xẩm Sai.
The naming of xẩm songs is even more diverse: from historical figures (Bà ba Cai Vàng), lyrical characters (Hỡi cô em yếm đỏ), bad habits (Xẩm Thuốc phiện), to symbolic images (Lênh đênh mặt nước cánh bèo) can all become xẩm song names[2]. Each xẩm song can consist of one or multiple combined melodies, depending on the length of the story when needing to sing and narrate many details or emotional states[2].
| Naming criterion | Example melody or xẩm song |
|---|---|
| Performance space | Xẩm Chợ, Xẩm Tàu điện (Xẩm Hà Nội), Xẩm Nhà trò |
| Purpose of the xẩm song | Xẩm Hò khoan |
| Content or name of famous song | Xẩm Thập Ân, Xẩm Thuốc phiện |
| Origin | Xẩm Sai |
| Historical figure | Bà ba Cai Vàng |
| Lyrical character | Hỡi cô em yếm đỏ |
What is special about Hanoi tram xẩm?
Hanoi alone has a very distinctive xẩm line that nowhere else has, which is tram xẩm, because it was often sung on trams[1][2]. Tram xẩm emerged in the early 20th century, appearing in the urban environment when xẩm singers performed by moving through tram cars[2]. Considered a later branch of ancient xẩm, tram xẩm has a fast tempo, is concise, and often uses poetry by famous poets such as "Anh khóa", "Cô hàng nước" by Á Nam Trần Tuấn Khải, "Giăng sáng vườn chè", "Em đi tỉnh về" by Nguyễn Bính set into xẩm melodies[1][2].
People's Artist Xuân Hoạch explained: "Each Xẩm song has a swaying rhythm that matches the cycle of rocking and the jolts and shakes each time the tram brakes, thereby overcoming the not at all pleasant noise of the tram."[2] This observation shows that tram xẩm is not just about changing performance location, but also a conscious adaptation of the singer to urban sound conditions.
In the past, xẩm artisans from rural areas came to Hanoi to perform, and to satisfy the aesthetic needs of urban residents, xẩm troupes cleverly inserted poets' verses into xẩm melodies, turning xẩm into a unique street music form, contributing to the distinctive character of Thăng Long, Hanoi street culture[1][2].
Why did other art forms have to borrow xẩm melodies?
In the system of xẩm melodies, there are melodies so attractive and distinctive that many other art forms such as chèo and ca trù had to borrow, such as Xẩm huê tình, Xẩm chợ, Xẩm xoan[1][2]. The song Xẩm huê tình when introduced by ca trù singers and musicians into the ca quán form is often called Xẩm Cô đầu, or Xẩm Nhà trò[1][2].
The fact that ca trù guild artists still keep the word "Xẩm" in this melody shows they respect xẩm art and want to indicate the origin of the melody[1][2]. This is an important detail when assessing the position of xẩm in the traditional music system: a form considered "of the poor" had a reverse influence on chamber forms considered more scholarly.
The 2011 article also notes a distinctive point: whether the content is about love or themes of struggle and mass mobilization, xẩm artisans all "tell" through music in a humorous, easy-to-hear, easy-to-remember way[1]. Not only is it a performance environment in crowded places and for common people, xẩm also contains high artistic value, loved by intellectuals and Confucian scholars, with a whole line of chamber xẩm called Xẩm Nhà trò (or Xẩm nhả tơ, Xẩm cô đầu) to serve this class[1].
How has the xẩm profession risen and fallen?
The late 19th and early 20th centuries were the most prosperous time of hát xẩm[1][2]. At this time, xẩm was no longer simply a form of entertainment during agricultural leisure, but had developed into a livelihood for the poor in cities and was passed down from generation to generation[1][2]. The largest number of xẩm singers was during the French colonial period and the early years of the resistance war against the French[1][2].
By the mid-20th century, the xẩm profession still existed with talented artisans such as Nguyễn Văn Nguyên (known as cụ Trùm Nguyên), Vũ Đức Sắc in Hanoi; Thân Đức Chinh in Bắc Giang; Nguyễn Phong Sắc in Hải Dương; cụ Trùm Khoản in Sơn Tây; cụ Chánh Trương Mậu in Ninh Bình; cụ Đào Thị Mận in Hưng Yên; cụ Trần Thị Nhớn in Nam Định; Trần Thị Thìn, Nguyễn Văn Khôi in Hà Đông[2]. The province names here are those of that time; several have since been merged. This list only counts those whose names were recorded, besides which there were many other anonymous artisans[2].
From the 1960s onward, due to various reasons related to environmental and social conditions, especially due to mistaken conceptions, xẩm troupes gradually disbanded and ceased operating[2]. Famous xẩm artisans gradually entered old age and passed away one by one, taking with them the distinctive artistic values they had preserved[2]. Artisan Hà Thị Cầu, dubbed "the last xẩm singing woman of the 20th century" and the youngest wife of ông Chánh Trương Mậu, the former xẩm master of Ninh Bình, passed away in 2013[2].
In folk tradition, xẩm was once associated with agricultural leisure seasons: after a bountiful harvest, xẩm singing troupes were often invited to sing at the homes of wealthy and prestigious families[1]. Xẩm artists were also ready to serve on request during weddings, funerals, death anniversaries, and sometimes simply "asking Mr. Xẩm to speak on one's behalf" to a village girl standing by the roadside[1][2].
How was xẩm used as a communication channel?
One of the unique functions of hát xẩm art is its role as a communication channel through singing[1][2]. In the resistance war against French colonialists and also in the resistance war against the Americans, "xẩm địch vận" (enemy mobilization xẩm) appeared and promoted an active role[1][2].
To encourage the spirit of soldiers on the frontline maintaining the vital traffic artery of Hàm Rồng Bridge, xẩm artisan Minh Sen in Thanh Hóa carried his two-string fiddle everywhere on the front to bring humorous songs, bringing hearty laughter to the soldiers[1][2]. Artisan Hà Thị Cầu, though completely illiterate, composed the xẩm song "Theo Đảng trọn đời" in the thập ân melody[2]. Artisan Vũ Đức Sắc had the song "Tiễu trừ giặc dốt" responding to the Mass Education Movement[2].
It should be noted that these are historical events tied to the specific context of the 20th century, and the mobilization of xẩm for propaganda purposes is a chapter in the history of this form's existence, not its inherent nature.
Why is hát xẩm at risk of being lost?
After the war, xẩm melodies were used by musicians and cultural officials as tools to propagandize the policies and guidelines of the Party and State[1][2]. But from the 1960s, due to changing environmental and social conditions along with mistaken conceptions, xẩm troupes gradually disbanded[2].
Dr. Lê Thị Minh Lý, former Deputy Director of the Heritage Department (Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism), believes that hát xẩm is a unique art, a heritage needing urgent protection, and recommended that Ninh Bình province create a scientific dossier to include it in the National Intangible Cultural Heritage list[1].
Artist Trần Quốc Chiêm, then Deputy Director of the Hanoi Department of Culture, Sports and Tourism, commented that hát xẩm art is closely tied to the masses, has broad community propaganda value and high educational value, so it also needs to be preserved, promoted and safeguarded[1].
Where is hát xẩm being preserved?
In 2021, hát xẩm art in Ninh Bình was included by the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism in the National Intangible Cultural Heritage List[3]. This is an important legal milestone, marking the State's recognition of the value of this form.
In Yên Từ commune, Ninh Bình province, the Hà Thị Cầu Xẩm Singing Club was established in 2018 with 32 members, ranging in age from 6 to 87[3]. Elderly artisans directly guide the younger generation from basic techniques such as breathing, word release, and clapper beating to how to perceive the depth of content of each song line[3]. The Kim Ngân Xẩm Singing Team, established in 2014, maintains classes with about 40 students, mainly children and teenagers[3]. In the commune, 9 clubs and art teams for xẩm and chèo singing have been formed, attracting hundreds of members of various ages[3].
The People's Committee of Yên Từ commune has coordinated with primary schools in the area to organize many extracurricular classes with hundreds of teaching sessions, helping students access basic knowledge about xẩm from melodies and rhythms to the content and meaning of each song[3]. Northern provinces have also established many xẩm clubs and groups such as chiếu Xẩm Hà Thành, chiếu Xẩm Hải Phòng, along with xẩm singing clubs in Quảng Ninh and in the former provinces of Nam Định, Vĩnh Phúc and Thái Bình (since July 2025 part of Ninh Bình, Phú Thọ and Hưng Yên respectively)[2].
