The Mother Goddess Worship of Tam Phu and the Hau Dong Ritual in Vietnamese Spiritual Life

What is the Mother Goddess worship of the Three Palaces?

Mother Goddess worship is a form of indigenous folk belief with a long history, holding an important place in the spiritual life of Vietnamese people. Unlike many religions that turn toward a distant supernatural world, Mother Goddess worship turns toward people's actual lives, with very everyday aspirations for health, fortune, luck and peace. Open, syncretic and rich in humanistic values, this belief is not only a spiritual need but also a thread binding the community, contributing to the unique cultural identity of the nation.

On 1 December 2016, at the 11th session of the UNESCO Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage held in Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), the dossier "Practices of the Mother Goddess worship of the Three Palaces of the Vietnamese people" was officially inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. This event not only affirmed the enormous cultural values of the belief but also represented international recognition of a cultural practice transmitted over many centuries. Information about this inscription was published by the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism and the Department of Cultural Heritage on the official pages of the two agencies.

Summary table of the Holy Mothers in the pantheon, their domains of rule and the colours of their robes.

Origins and the process of formation

How did the shift from goddess worship to Mother Goddess worship take place?

The origins of Mother Goddess worship are believed to date back to prehistoric times, when ancient Vietnamese people worshipped natural spirits such as the Cloud spirit, the Rain spirit, the Thunder spirit and the Lightning spirit. In the worldview of wet-rice agricultural communities, sky, earth, rivers and mountains all had life and were governed by deities. These deities gradually became personified and merged into the concept of the Holy Mother, also called the Mother goddess. The image of the Mother in her role of giving birth, bringing forth and sheltering became a sacred symbol, meeting the spiritual need for protection by supernatural forces in human life.

According to the work of Nguyễn Hữu Thụ published in 2019, before the 16th century, three deities tied to the three key spatial domains of farming, namely sky, earth and water, considerably shaped the functions and images of the Mother Goddesses, because the rice-growing economy was dominant. From after the 16th century, commerce boomed while agriculture gradually lost its position, and so the Three Holy Mothers took shape with Mẫu Thượng Ngàn appearing alongside Mẫu Thượng Thiên and Mẫu Thoải, while Mẫu Địa was removed from the Three Holy Mothers.

The formation of the Three Palaces and the Four Palaces

Over the course of history, Mother Goddess worship gradually developed and was systematised into the Three Palaces belief, comprising three domains of rule: Thiên phủ (the heavenly palace), Nhạc phủ (the mountain and forest palace) and Thoải phủ (the water palace). Later, when Địa phủ (the earthly palace) was added, the belief expanded into the Four Palaces. This division reflects the conception of a complete universe with four main spatial domains, each governed by Holy Mothers and mandarin deities.

Cao Thế Trình (2020) states that in Chinese Daoism there also exists the concept of the Three Palaces (the Three Realms, the Three Primes), with three male deities holding power: the Heaven Official who grants blessings, the Earth Official who pardons sins, and the Water Official who saves from calamity. Among the Vietnamese, the Three Palaces comprise Thiên phủ, Nhạc phủ and Thoải (Thủy) phủ. As for the composition of the Four Palaces, besides the three palaces mentioned above, whether the fourth palace is identified as Địa phủ, Nhân phủ or the Trần dynasty palace remains a matter under discussion; the author Cao Thế Trình holds that it is the Trần dynasty palace, based on the designation "Mother Goddess worship of the Three Palaces" that UNESCO uses. This is a research result that has not been replicated and remains debated in academic circles.

By the 16th century, with the emergence of Holy Mother Liễu Hạnh, on the basis of the Three Palaces and Four Palaces belief, an indigenous religion of a rudimentary character took shape, marking an important step in the history of the belief. This belief has been transmitted since the 16th century through the practice and teaching of thủ nhang (temple guardians), đồng đền (mediums of the temple), con nhang and đệ tử (followers and disciples).

According to folk legend, Holy Mother Liễu Hạnh is one of the Four Immortals, together with Tản Viên Sơn Thánh, Thánh Gióng and Chử Đồng Tử. Legend tells that she was a princess, the daughter of the Jade Emperor, who descended to earth three times, associated with Phủ Dầy (formerly Nam Định, now in Ninh Bình). According to Nguyễn Hữu Thụ (2019), the appearance of Holy Mother Liễu Hạnh can be seen as the convergence of all Holy Mothers, because the system of legends and related relics stretches across Lạng Sơn, Tây Hồ, Nam Định, Đồi Ngang (Ninh Bình) and Đền Sòng (Thanh Hóa). Nevertheless, as Nguyễn Hữu Thụ emphasised, she is regarded as a spiritual symbol of a rising force, namely the Vietnamese merchant class in the 16th century.

Who makes up the pantheon in Mother Goddess worship?

The pantheon of Mother Goddess worship is very rich and diverse, arranged in a definite order. At the centre of the pantheon are the Three Holy Mothers, comprising three supremely sacred figures ruling the three domains of the universe:

• First Holy Mother (Thiên phủ): Rules the heavenly domain, usually dressed in a red robe.
• Second Holy Mother (Thoải phủ): Rules the water domain, usually dressed in a blue or white robe.
• Third Holy Mother (Nhạc phủ): Rules the mountain and forest domain, usually dressed in a green robe.

In some variants of the Four Palaces, there is also a Fourth Holy Mother (Địa phủ) ruling the earthly domain, usually dressed in a yellow robe. Besides the Holy Mothers, the pantheon also includes other deities, arranged in ranks below the Three Holy Mothers:

• Ngũ vị Tôn Ông (the five great mandarins): Five great mandarins, each with their own powers and ceremonial attire.
• Tứ vị Chầu Bà: Four Lady Chầu, attendants and assistants to the Holy Mothers.
• Ngũ vị Hoàng tử (the five princes): Five princes, associated with different tasks in the pantheon.
• The Cô: Younger female deities.
• The Cậu: Younger male deities.

Each figure has its own character, personality and powers, creating a spiritual world that is both intimate and sacred. In this system, "Thoải" is a phonetic variant of "Thủy", meaning the domain of rivers and water.

Regarding the relationship with Buddhism and other ethnic groups, according to Nguyễn Hữu Thụ (2009), because legend tells that Holy Mother Liễu Hạnh took refuge in the Buddha's teaching and became the Mother Buddha, quite a few pagodas in the North arrange a Mother Goddess altar according to the model of "Buddha in front, Mother behind". The structure of present-day pagodas in the Red River Delta is usually divided into three parts: the main hall holds the Buddha altar, together with the Mother Goddess altar and the altar of deities. Three arrangements may be applied: either placing the deities in front and the Buddha behind, or placing the Buddha in front and the deities behind, or letting all three stand side by side in an equal whole while still distinguishing primary and secondary positions.

In addition, the pantheon of Mother Goddess worship also receives some deities of the Tày, Nùng and Chăm peoples, such as the Lady Chầu and the Princes of the Thượng ngàn region. According to Hồ Thị Đào and Nguyễn Quốc Bình (2021), the tradition of honouring women along with a strong practice of goddess worship is a distinctive feature of the ethnic Vietnamese of the North, of which Đạo Mẫu is a typical example with its system of deities and the rituals of the Three Palaces and Four Palaces to worship the Mothers: Thượng Thiên, Thượng Ngàn, Mẫu Thoải and Mẫu Liễu Hạnh. In the Central region, the worship of Thiên Ya-na Thánh mẫu arose from the combination of the Vietnamese and the Chăm.

What are the core values and humanistic meaning of Mother Goddess worship?

"Tâm" (the heart, the mind) is regarded as the core value of Mother Goddess worship. The belief teaches people to live toward goodness, to keep their souls pure, to know how to treat others, to worship ancestors and to be grateful to those who have served the people and the country. Through the worship of the Mothers, people aim to eliminate what is bad and move toward what is good and beautiful, nurturing compassion and generosity. These are precisely moral values of profound humanistic character, with an appeal to every social class.

From a social perspective, Mother Goddess worship has contributed and continues to contribute importantly to creating a spiritual thread linking communities that practise the heritage. The heritage is shared by different ethnic groups in Vietnam, and its practice strengthens dialogue and promotes respect for cultural diversity. Moreover, this belief also enriches the cultural capital and becomes an important component of festivals, where artistic elements such as costumes, dance and music play an important role, contributing to creativity and the preservation of the nation's cultural identity.

According to Nguyễn Hữu Thụ (2009), through Holy Mother Liễu Hạnh, the Vietnamese perceive a Mother very close to a Bodhisattva: able to grant blessings and fortune to the gentle and virtuous, to help the poor in times of calamity, and to punish the treacherous or those who do evil, including court officials.

What is the hầu đồng (spirit mediumship ritual)?

The concept and meaning of hầu đồng

Hầu đồng (also called hầu bóng or lên đồng (spirit possession ritual)) is the most typical ritual practice in the Mother Goddess worship of the Three Palaces. It is a ritual in which deities are believed to enter the body of the medium (thanh đồng) to grant fortune, heal illness, perform giải hạn (rite to ward off misfortune) and convey words of advice to followers and disciples. The hầu đồng ritual is not only a form of communication with the deities but also a composite art form, seamlessly combining music, singing, costume and dance.

The steps and components of the hầu đồng ritual

A hầu đồng session is usually held at temples, palaces and shrines of the Mother Goddess with the participation of many components:

• Thanh đồng (male and female mediums): The person performing the ritual, regarded as an intermediary between humans and deities.
• Cung văn: The singers of chầu văn (văn singing), whose role is to create a sacred atmosphere and to guide the narrative throughout the session.
• Con nhang, đệ tử: Followers and disciples who observe, take part and receive blessings.

The ritual begins with the offering of incense and prayers, after which the cung văn raise the opening chầu văn melodies to invite the deities. When a deity "descends" into the medium, the medium changes costume (putting on that deity's robe), performs the movements, gestures and speech characteristic of that deity and grants blessings to the followers. Each "giá" (a single descent of a deity) has its own colour, ritual and meaning. The ritual can last from a few hours to a whole day depending on its scale.

What is the art of Chầu văn?

Closely tied to the hầu đồng ritual is the art of Chầu văn (also called Hát văn), a unique traditional folk art form. Chầu văn uses folk melodies combined with traditional instruments such as the đàn nguyệt (moon lute), flute, drum and phách (clappers) to create a musical space that is both solemn and captivating. The lyrics of chầu văn usually praise the merits of the saints, recount their legends and histories, and at the same time convey profound philosophies of life. For this reason, Chầu văn has been recognised as a national intangible cultural heritage and is an inseparable part of Mother Goddess worship.

Other rituals and practices in Mother Goddess worship

Besides the hầu đồng ritual, the practice of Mother Goddess worship also includes many other rituals and customs such as:

• Lễ đội bát nhang: The ritual of establishing an incense bowl to worship the Mother Goddess at home or at a temple or palace.
• Lễ tôn nhang bản mệnh: The ritual establishing a spiritual relationship between an individual and a deity, regarding that deity as one's "mệnh" (destiny).
• Lễ dâng sao, giải hạn: A ritual to pray to the stars for protection and to dissolve misfortune.
• Lễ cúng tiến, dâng lễ vật: The preparation and offering to the deities of offerings such as clothes, fruit, votive money and paper models, expressing the reverence and wishes of the followers.

These rituals are performed in a methodical manner, complying with strict rules of form and content. Specific instructions on these distinctive rituals are often shared and passed down by famous đồng đền, thanh đồng and cung văn, helping to maintain and promote the value of the heritage across many generations.

Mother Goddess worship in contemporary life

In the context of modern society, Mother Goddess worship still retains a powerful vitality and adapts flexibly. Belief practices take place regularly at temple and palace gates throughout the country. In addition, Mother Goddess worship is also expressed through various art forms such as văn singing on traditional stages and lacquer paintings on the theme of Mother Goddess worship. The UNESCO inscription has created a new vitality, promoting research, preservation and promotion of the heritage's values in a more methodical and scientific way.

Some major Mother Goddess worship centres in Vietnam:

Many book publications and research works on Mother Goddess worship have been widely published as a way for people to recognise, honour and help protect the values of the heritage. Books such as "Tín ngưỡng thờ Mẫu tứ phủ: Chốn thiêng nơi cõi thực" not only provide clear explanations of the pantheon and the important rituals but also gather specific instructions from artisans, helping to bring the heritage closer to the public. However, alongside the positive values, there remain deviant phenomena and commercialisation in the practice of the belief. Recognising and eliminating negative manifestations and moving toward genuine values is the shared responsibility of the whole society, so that Mother Goddess worship is truly a precious cultural heritage, reflecting the aspiration toward goodness and the identity of the Vietnamese soul.

Is Đạo Mẫu a religion?

Đạo Mẫu is an indigenous folk belief, with no founding prophet or unified scriptures. It operates through temples, palaces, thủ nhang, đồng đền, thanh đồng, con nhang and đệ tử, and varies from region to region. Therefore, Đạo Mẫu can be seen as a system of folk belief with a relatively tightly organised practice, rather than a religion in the sense of having doctrines, canon law and a central church like Buddhism or Christianity.

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References for this article:

• Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism – Thực hành Tín ngưỡng thờ Mẫu Tam phủ của người Việt trở thành Di sản văn hóa phi vật thể đại diện của nhân loại https://bvhttdl.gov.vn/thuc-hanh-tin-nguong-tho-mau-tam-phu-cua-nguoi-viet-tro-thanh-di-san-van-hoa-phi-vat-the-dai-dien-cua-nhan-loai-9094.htm
• Department of Cultural Heritage – Thực hành Tín ngưỡng Thờ Mẫu Tam phủ của người Việt trở thành Di sản văn hóa phi vật thể đại diện của nhân loại https://dsvh.gov.vn/thuc-hanh-tin-nguong-tho-mau-tam-phu-cua-nguoi-viet-tro-thanh-di-san-van-hoa-phi-vat-the-dai-dien-cua-nhan-loai-1536
• Dân trí – Thực hành Tín ngưỡng thờ Mẫu Tam phủ của người Việt được UNESCO ghi danh
• Nguyễn Hữu Thụ (2019). Sinh hoạt tín ngưỡng và một số khía cạnh kinh tế (qua khảo cứu tín ngưỡng thờ Mẫu của người Việt ở Đồng bằng Bắc Bộ). Tạp chí Nghiên cứu Tôn giáo, số 2 (182), 2019. https://vjol.info.vn/rsr/vi/article/view/57998/
• Cao Thế Trình (2020). Trao đổi thêm về thời điểm ra đời của tín ngưỡng thờ Mẫu Tam phủ. Tạp chí Khoa học Đại học Đà Lạt 10(1): 114-128. https://doi.org/10.37569/dalatuniversity.10.1.616(2020)
• Nguyễn Hữu Thụ (2009). Đôi điều về sự tiếp xúc giữa Phật giáo và tín ngưỡng thờ Mẫu qua truyền thuyết Phật Mẫu Man Nương và Thánh Mẫu Liễu Hạnh. Tạp chí Nghiên cứu Tôn giáo, số 4, 2009. https://jars.vn/index.php/tcdt/vi/article/view/vjol-article-3331
• Hồ Thị Đào và Nguyễn Quốc Bình (2021). Giá trị văn hoá của tín ngưỡng thờ Bà Chúa Xứ núi Sam trong phát triển du lịch tỉnh An Giang. Tạp chí Khoa học Đại học Đồng Tháp 10(2): 37-46. https://doi.org/10.52714/dthu.10.2.2021.853