Where did Southern Vietnamese culture come from?
Southern Vietnamese culture resulted from a relatively late frontier settlement compared with other regions of the country, involving many waves of migrants and several ethnic groups living side by side. According to research presented at the national scientific conference "Southern Culture: Theoretical and Practical Issues" organised by Tra Vinh University, this very circumstance forged in the life of the residents a particularly strong sense of community cohesion, regardless of group, ethnicity, origin or wealth.
Through long co-residence, these groups gradually blended in many aspects: natural conditions, human geography, history, culture and society. This point matters when comparing regions: if the Northern Delta has a deep tradition of villages with institutions long stabilised, the South bears the mark of a land shaped by many cultural currents meeting, in which Kinh, Hoa, Khmer and Cham elements are all present.
Village communal house and covered market hall: two signature institutions
The Southern village communal house (đình làng) is both a place of worship for deities and for the founding and later worthies, and a centre of community life. Beside it, the covered market hall is a structure tied to the river-borne trading life. The covered market hall dates from the second half of the 19th century, with multiple bays, tiled roofs, rows of columns, open on all four sides, sometimes with extra awnings to expand the space.
According to recalled memoirs of Paul Doumer, every village in Cochinchina prided itself on two structures: its communal house and its covered market hall. This saying shows the parallel between traditional worship and an open, trade-minded outlook. Covered market halls usually sit close to river wharves, where boats crowd in with farm produce. Near Tet, the market wharf is packed with no room to squeeze through, as goods from many regions pour in.
| Institution | Main function | Architecture and location |
|---|---|---|
| Village communal house | Worship of deities and worthies; community life | Usually the central structure of the village |
| Covered market hall | Goods exchange, trade | Multiple bays, tiled roof, no walls, by the river wharf |
| Shrines and tombs of the Whale | Sea-faring worship | Distributed in coastal and island provinces |
| Chinese shrines | Worship of deities and saints; community bonding | Red colour, located in market towns |
Why is the worship of the Lady goddesses so widespread in the South?
The worship of the Mother Goddesses and Lady goddesses in the South is widespread because it meets the diverse spiritual needs of residents from many ethnic groups living together. According to the research group of Phan Dinh Dung and colleagues at Ho Chi Minh City University of Culture, the typical Mother figures have folk names and honorific titles: Bà (Lady Chúa Xứ, Lady Đen, Lady Thiên Hậu), Mẫu (Thiên Hậu Thánh Mẫu), Mẹ (Mother Quan Âm).
These Mother figures are tied to major festivals during the year, regional in scope, going beyond the space of a single locality or ethnic community. Lady Quan Âm, in Buddhist belief introduced from abroad into Vietnam, became in the South a Mother figure that is both folk belief and religion. Lady Thiên Hậu came from China with Chinese migrants into the South, moving beyond the belief in miraculous rescue of seafarers to become a Mother goddess meeting many needs of faith. Lady Chúa Xứ, with explanations of her origin, reflects a historical dimension, blending Cham and Khmer beliefs and being Vietnamised.
According to the research group, from originally specialised beliefs, through contact and acculturation in the community, these Mother figures continued to be revered as patron deities in many aspects that residents care about: praying for peace, fortune, harmony, livelihood, wealth and love. The worship of the Mother Goddesses meets the needs of residents regardless of ethnic culture or place of residence. Today, major festivals at important shrines to female deities such as Lady Đen (Tay Ninh), Lady Chúa Xứ (An Giang), Lady Thiên Hậu (Binh Duong) and Lady Quan Âm (Bac Lieu) have become spiritual destinations and cultural resources for local tourism development.
What is distinctive about the sea beliefs of the South?
The sea beliefs of the South are rich with many forms among the Kinh and Hoa, formed about two centuries ago. According to researcher Nguyen Thanh Loi, the dominant belief is in natural deities, notably the shrines and tombs of the Whale distributed in almost all coastal provinces, including islands, with 76 shrines and tombs across 9 coastal provinces and cities and 3 non-coastal provinces: Long An, Vinh Long and Can Tho.
Chinese elements influenced the architecture and decoration of Kinh religious sites such as the Thuy Te shrine in Bac Lieu and the Ong Song Doc tomb in Ca Mau. Notably, there is exchange between fishing beliefs (the Whale) and agricultural beliefs (Lady Chúa Xứ), shown through the My Long Sea Offering festival at the Lady Chúa Xứ My Long shrine, Cau Ngang district, Tra Vinh. These religious sites carry historical and cultural value and hold potential for socio-economic development in the region.
What have the Chinese contributed to Southern culture?
The Chinese arrived in Vietnam at different times, for different reasons, and built shrines with their own cultural identity. According to Dr Ho Tuong of Binh Duong University, Chinese shrines contribute an imposing type of religious architecture, in vivid red, located in market towns across the South, where the Chinese mainly live by trade.
Through these shrines, the spiritual life of Southern residents gained many deities and saints with functions meeting spiritual needs. Along with the objects of worship, Chinese shrines also bring grand festivals with processions, ritual bands and lion and dragon dance troupes. These shrines also radiate community bonding, from mutual help in life and business to jointly building schools, hospitals and cemeteries. The bang and guild hall model from Chinese shrines influenced the Vietnamese community through the formation of fellow-countrymen liaison boards in major cities from the early 20th century.
What stands out in the Southern dialect?
The Southern dialect formed alongside the character of those who opened up the land. According to a study in Dai Doan Ket, the migrants to the South were people who dared to think and act, sharing a sense of fellow feeling. On that basis a dialect quite different from the one they left behind took shape. During the reclamation, Indian, Chinese, Khmer and European elements arrived and enriched the dialect.
In pronunciation, the Southern dialect renders V, D and GI all as D. In vocabulary, it is rich in imagery and often uses paired words beginning with a function word. Exaggeration and hyperbole are very common; for example, expressions of poverty or of being full are pushed to extreme imagery yet still carry an optimistic, humorous tone.
Notably, because of the dense network of rivers and canals, the Southern dialect has great variety in naming water flows. People distinguish not only the rising tide (nước lớn) and the falling tide (nước ròng) but add many other terms such as nước kém, nước trồi, nước dềnh, nước sụt, nước giựt, nước bò, nước nhảy, nước đứng, nước nằm. Water can jump, stand, lie and crawl, which are actions of living creatures, but that is how Southern people approach things.
Water transport also has many rich names: ghe bầu, ghe be, ghe cà vom, ghe chài, ghe cui, ghe cửa, ghe giàn, ghe hầu, ghe lồng, ghe lườn, ghe ngo, vỏ lải, tắc ráng, tam bản, ba lá. Aquatic animals also have many specific names: tôm bạc, tôm càng, tôm châm, tôm chấu, tôm chì, tôm gọng, tôm hùm, tôm kẹt, tôm lóng, tôm lứa, tôm mắt tre, tôm quỵt, tôm rồng, tôm sắc, tôm sú, tôm thẻ, tôm tích, tôm tu, tôm vang. Each species has its own name, showing that the dialect must be rich to match how people think.
An open way of life and the culture of leisurely eating and drinking
The open way of life of Southern people shows in many everyday activities. According to a study in Dai Doan Ket, Southern people are fond of cheerfulness, informal, value loyalty, love fun, are generous and do not calculate in a petty way. In cuisine, this shows through what might be called the culture of lai rai: eating is not only for feasts and guests but also for the pleasure of lingering over food and drink. Rice-field banks, rivers and canals, and covered market halls can all become spaces for lai rai.
The culture of lai rai can develop into heavy drinking, often accompanied by a few lines of vọng cổ and a bit of đờn ca tài tử, expressing an unrestrained cheerfulness. Of course, like any custom, it has a downside when pushed too far. This is a description of cultural practice, not a judgement of people.
How does Southern Tet differ from Northern and Central Tet?
Southern Tet, as recorded in the book Gia Dinh Thanh Thong Chi, a geographical work on the Southern land from the early 19th century, first of all marks the end of an agricultural cycle, a time to thank heaven and earth and to honour ancestors. The first Tet custom is remembering grandparents and ancestors who cleared land and founded hamlets: in the last month of the year, people visit and tidy the ancestral graves.
The Southern five-fruit tray, according to an article in Nhan Dan, includes custard apple, coconut, papaya, mango and fig or pineapple, meaning a prayer for just enough to spend, prosperity and fragrance. This is a characteristic wordplay, different from the five-fruit tray of some Northern and Central regions, which have their own choices and meanings. The custom of erecting the Tet pole is also present in the South: at year's end every household raises a bamboo pole before the main door, ties on a bamboo basket holding betel, areca and lime, hangs paper money and gold and silver nearby, and takes it down on the seventh day of Tet.
The signature Southern Tet cake is bánh tét, wrapped in banana leaves, round and firm, with the filling in the centre, including sweet fillings such as banana and savoury fillings of mung bean and pork fat. The Tet meal includes pork braised with eggs in coconut water, pickled bean sprouts, bitter melon soup stuffed with meat, spring rolls and various cold cuts. On the third day, the offering to see off ancestors usually includes a tam sên plate of pork, duck egg and freshwater prawn, representing land and water animals.
Traditional crafts and intangible cultural heritage
The South has many traditional crafts recognised as national intangible cultural heritage. According to an article in VietnamPlus, these include lacquerware in Tuong Binh Hiep craft village, Binh Duong province; Trang Bang rice paper in Tay Ninh province; mat weaving in Dinh Yen commune, Lap Vo district, Dong Thap province; traditional fish sauce making in Phu Quoc, Kien Giang province; and salted ba khía crab and bee-rafting in Ca Mau province.
The Dinh Yen mat-weaving village lies beside the Hau River and was formed hundreds of years ago, using bulrush and sedge. Products come in many types with names such as chiếu vảy ốc, chiếu bông, chiếu con cờ, chiếu trắng and chiếu cổ. In the past, the village also had a mat market held at midnight beside the Hau River, which many called the ghost market, suited to the custom of trading by boat.
Bac Lieu has the national intangible heritage of salt making. According to Vice Chairman of the Provincial People's Committee Cao Xuan Thu Van, Bac Lieu's salt making is concentrated most in Vinh Hau and Vinh Thinh communes of Hoa Binh district and Long Dien Dong, Dien Hai and Long Dien Tay communes of Dong Hai district. Bac Lieu salt was once commonly called Ba Thac salt and still keeps its distinctive trait of being salty yet with a sweet aftertaste, not harshly salty.
Ca Mau has the crafts of salted ba khía crab and bee-rafting in the U Minh forest area, recognised as national intangible cultural heritage. Bee-rafting is tied to folk experience passed down through many generations in U Minh and Tran Van Thoi districts, with the method of placing rafts for bees to nest and harvesting honey in the two seasons of dry-season bees and water-season bees.
What should be kept in mind when comparing with other regions?
When comparing Southern culture with the Northern and Central Deltas, two extremes should be avoided: absolutising the differences and implicitly ranking them as better or worse. The South has a dense network of communal houses and shrines tied to frontier settlement and ethnic exchange, while the North has a deep village tradition with a system of communal houses, temples and pagodas long stabilised. Mother Goddess worship in the South is highly syncretic among ethnic groups, while in the North it is tied to a system of deities and rituals with a longer history.
The Southern dialect has a rich vocabulary for waterways and water transport, reflecting a distinctive living environment. The Northern and Central dialects have their own phonetic and lexical features, and no single region can be taken as the standard to measure the others. Researchers also do not fully agree on the origin of some phenomena such as the worship of Lady Chúa Xứ, with one hypothesis stressing the Cham element and another stressing the Khmer element or the Vietnamisation process. This article notes that disagreement rather than choosing one side.
Regarding Tet, the five-fruit tray and the Tet cake are two clear examples of regional difference. The South uses bánh tét and a five-fruit tray with the wordplay cầu, dừa, đủ, xoài, sung. The North uses bánh chưng and a five-fruit tray with its own choices and meanings. This is a difference in cultural choices within the same Tet framework, not a matter of better or worse.
Conclusion
Southern Vietnamese culture is an open structure, built by many waves of migrants and many ethnic groups living together. The village communal house and the covered market hall show the parallel between worship and trade. The worship of the Lady goddesses is widespread thanks to its capacity to blend and meet diverse spiritual needs. The Southern dialect is rich in imagery, reflecting the riverine environment and the free-spirited character of the settlers. These traits create a distinct identity within the broader picture of Vietnamese culture, alongside the differences of the Northern and Central Deltas.
