Who are the San Diu and where does their name come from?
The San Diu are one of the 54 ethnic groups recognized in Vietnam, with the self-name San Deo Nhin, meaning Mountain Yao people. Other recorded names include Trai, Trai Dat, San Doo, Man Quan Coc and Man Vay Xe. According to the Survey of 53 Ethnic Minorities of 1 April 2019, the San Diu population is 183,004; the 2009 Population and Housing Census recorded 146,821.
On origins, all available sources record that the San Diu migrated to Vietnam about 300 years ago. This is consistent across reference sources, with no significant difference in the timeframe.
In the list of Vietnam's ethnic components, the San Diu are classified as a separate ethnic group, not a local subgroup or branch of another people. Names such as Trai, Man Quan Coc and Man Vay Xe are alternative designations once used in writing and daily life, now recorded for identification.
Where do the San Diu live?
The San Diu live concentrated in the northern midland region of Vietnam, in the area from the left bank of the Red River eastward. Recorded areas include Quang Ninh, Ha Bac, Hai Hung, Bac Thai, Vinh Phu and Tuyen Quang according to government listings.
In settlement form, San Diu villages are described as resembling Vietnamese villages, with bamboo ramparts and walls or fences between houses. Common housing is rammed-earth or plank-walled houses. This settlement type suits the midland terrain of hard, gravelly soil.
Note that administrative descriptions often use unit names current at the time of publication. Names such as Ha Bac, Hai Hung, Bac Thai and Vinh Phu are former provinces whose boundaries have since changed. Readers should compare with current administrative maps to identify the correct area.
Which language family does the San Diu language belong to?
The San Diu speak a Guangdong Chinese dialect belonging to the Sino-Tibetan family. This is consistently recorded across all three ethnic reference sources.
On writing, San Diu youth formerly studied Chinese characters to become ritual masters. Today, according to source records, very few people know Chinese characters. This is notable when examining the transmission and preservation of old ritual texts.
Identifying the Sino-Tibetan family helps distinguish San Diu speech from other language families in the region. However, a clear distinction is needed: the Guangdong Chinese dialect used by the San Diu is not identical to standard Chinese, nor to modern Cantonese spoken in China.
What is distinctive about San Diu worship customs?
On the San Diu altar are usually three incense bowls for ancestors, ritual masters and the kitchen god. If the household head has not been granted ritual rank, the altar has only two incense bowls. Those who have recently died without completed funeral rites also have an incense bowl placed on the altar but lower. The San Diu also worship the earth god at shrines and the village guardian spirit at communal houses.
Notable is the distinction between two and three incense bowls tied to the household head's ritual rank. This is a tiering mechanism in worship practice, reflecting the role of ritual masters and the rank system in community spiritual life.
The toolkit of a San Diu ritual master is recorded as including an altar, command tablets, ritual books, a horn and yin-yang divination blocks. The presence of ritual books shows San Diu rites are tied to Chinese-character texts, explaining why learning Chinese characters was formerly linked to becoming a ritual master.
Festivals and main life-cycle rites of the San Diu
According to sources, the San Diu have male-female courtship singing called soong co, often sung at night, with sessions lasting many nights. This folk performance is recorded alongside life-cycle rites.
For festivals, the San Diu have Tet days like many peoples in the region. The Dong Chi (winter solstice) Tet carries the added meaning of praying for many children and grandchildren. A related custom: couples long married without children, after Tet, the wife returns to her parents' home, the husband sends a matchmaker, and they then hold a wedding again as if marrying a new wife.
On marriage, men and women are free to love, but becoming husband and wife still depends on fate and parents' decision. The wedding includes many rites, most notably the khai hoa tuu ceremony held at the bride's house the day before she moves to the groom's home. In this rite, a wine jar and a plate are used; the plate is lined with two flower-cut papers, white below and red above, and two boiled eggs are placed on it, strung with red thread and tied with two coins on each side. After offering, the eggs are peeled, the yolks mixed with wine for everyone to drink in celebration of the couple's happiness.
On funerals, at burial the children must crawl from the foot of the coffin once around the grave mouth. Sons crawl left to right, daughters right to left, pushing soil to fill the grave as they crawl. On standing up, each person grabs a handful of soil and runs quickly home to put it in the buffalo or pig pen, meaning to make livestock multiply. Then they run into the house and sit on a rice basket, believing whoever gets more rice is luckier. Finally, each tears a piece of boiled chicken to eat; the first to arrive gets the comb, then the head, neck and wing. The tomb house has a flat roof covered with forest leaves. At reburial, bones are placed in small jars or urns in a sitting position, and if an auspicious day has not been chosen, they are temporarily buried at the foot of a hill or a rice field bank.
On new homes, whenever someone builds a house, relatives and villagers come to help on their own, without the owner needing to invite them. In the new-home ceremony, the owner invites an elder in the lineage to bring fire, a lime pot and some seeds into the house.
Comparing San Diu rites in a reference table
| Rite | Timing | Main features | Recorded meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Khai hoa tuu | At bride's house, before she moves to groom's home | Wine jar, plate lined with white below red flower-cut paper, two boiled eggs strung with red thread, two coins tied on each side; after offering, yolks mixed with wine | Drinking to celebrate the couple's happiness |
| Burial | At interment | Sons crawl left to right, daughters right to left around the grave mouth, pushing soil to fill it | Farewell rite binding children to the grave |
| Grabbing soil to the pen | Right after burial | Each person grabs a handful of soil, runs home to put it in buffalo or pig pen | Praying for livestock to multiply |
| Sitting on rice basket | After returning home | Run into the house, sit on a rice basket | Whoever gets more rice is luckier |
| Sharing boiled chicken | End of funeral rite | Each tears a piece of boiled chicken; first gets the comb, then head, neck, wing | Ordering by degree of luck |
| New home | When house is finished | An elder in the lineage brings fire, lime pot, some seeds into the house | Beginning life in the new home |
| Dong Chi Tet | Winter solstice Tet | Praying for many children and grandchildren; long-married childless couples have the wife return to her parents, then remarry as a new wife | Praying for offspring |
Clothing and economic life of the San Diu
Traditional women's attire includes a black headscarf, a single or double long shirt. If double, the inner one is always white, the outer indigo and slightly longer. With it are a red bodice, a white, pink or light blue belt, a two-piece skirt joined at one waistband just past the knee in indigo, and indigo and white leggings. Ornaments include silver necklaces, bracelets, earrings and chains. The two-piece skirt joined at one waistband is recorded as a distinctive cultural feature of the San Diu.
Men dress like Vietnamese: hair in a bun with a turban or folded headscarf, dark long shirt, white trousers.
In production, the San Diu do some wet-rice farming but not much, mainly dry fields. Besides rice, maize, potatoes and cassava, they grow many tuber crops. They have long used fertilizer. By adding a secondary tip, their ploughshares become more durable, sharp and suited to hard, gravelly soil.
In diet, the San Diu mainly eat white rice, sometimes mixed with potatoes and cassava. After meals, they often sip a bowl of thin porridge like the Nung.
For transport, besides carrying poles, the San Diu use the drag cart as their main means. Made of bamboo and wood, pulled by buffalo, it carries everything from rice and firewood to fertilizer. Without side wheels, the drag cart can be used on various terrains.
Notes on social relations and calendar
Before the August Revolution, land in San Diu areas was privatized and society clearly class-divided. Landlords and rich peasants held much land and exploited laboring peasants through sharecropping, hired labor and usury. Besides the government apparatus, villages had a head elected by the people to manage common affairs.
The San Diu follow the lunar calendar. This is common with many other peoples in the region.
The San Diu in the picture of Vietnam's 54 ethnic groups
Under Decision No. 121-TCTK/PPCD of 2 March 1979, Vietnam recognizes 54 ethnic groups. The Kinh make up over 85.4% of the national population; the other 53 are called minorities, about 14.6%. The San Diu are among these 53 minorities.
Ethnic minorities live across regions but mainly in high mountains, border areas and remote areas, concentrated in some northern mountainous provinces, the Central Highlands, North Central, South Central Coast and the Mekong Delta. The San Diu belong to the northern midland group, not the high mountain group.
Some groups such as Khmer, Cham and Hoa live in plains and cities, while the remaining minorities live mainly in mountainous areas with complex, fragmented terrain, difficult transport, and exposure to climate change and natural disasters. This is also a region with a low socio-economic starting point, where material and spiritual life still lags the national average. In this context, traditional cultural values tend to fade, and recording and researching cultural features such as language, worship customs and life-cycle rites of each people serves as part of preserving knowledge.
Points to note when researching the San Diu
Existing ethnic reference sources are mostly compiled from a common origin, then cited by various portals. So when different sites describe the San Diu similarly, this usually reflects citing the same source, not multiple independent confirmations.
Population figures differ by survey time: 146,821 in the 2009 Population and Housing Census, and 183,004 in the Survey of 53 Ethnic Minorities of 1 April 2019. When citing, state the year and survey name to avoid confusion.
On place names, former administrative listings such as Ha Bac, Hai Hung, Bac Thai and Vinh Phu no longer exist in the current administrative system. Readers should compare with current administrative maps when identifying specific areas.
On scope, sources present San Diu customs at a general level for the whole group. In reality, customs may differ between localities and settlement groups. Recording this difference is necessary, avoiding imposing a single template on the whole community.
